Q11: Describe the function, structure, and deficiency disorder of riboflavin. Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, is essential for energy production and the metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids. It is a component of the coenzymes FMN and FAD. Deficiency can lead to a condition known as Ariboflavinosis, characterized by sore throat, redness, and swelling of the lining of the mouth and throat.

Q12: Write a note on enzyme inhibition. Enzyme inhibition involves the regulation of enzyme activity. It can be competitive (molecules compete with the substrate), non-competitive (molecules bind elsewhere on the enzyme), or uncompetitive (binds only to the enzyme-substrate complex). Inhibitors can be used in drug development and research.

Q13: Write a note on Mutarotation. Mutarotation is the process by which the specific rotation of an optically active substance changes over time. It occurs when an equilibrium mixture of two anomers (isomers) forms in a solution. For example, glucose in solution mutarotates between its alpha and beta forms.

Q14: Explain denaturation of proteins. Protein denaturation is the disruption of the protein’s three-dimensional structure, leading to loss of its biological activity. This can occur due to heat, pH changes, or the presence of certain chemicals. Denatured proteins often lose their functionality.

Q15: Define and classify vitamins with examples. Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities for normal body functioning. They are classified into fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins (B-complex, C). They have various vital roles in metabolism, immunity, and overall health.

Q16: Write a note on the Glucose tolerance test. The Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) is used to diagnose diabetes and gestational diabetes. It involves drinking a sugary solution, followed by blood glucose measurements at specific intervals. Abnormal glucose tolerance can indicate a glucose metabolism disorder.

Q17: What are platelets, and what functions do they serve? Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small cell fragments in the blood. They play a crucial role in blood clotting and wound healing. When blood vessels are damaged, platelets aggregate at the site to form a plug that stops bleeding.

Q18: Define a) Zwitter Ion, b) Isoelectric pH, c) Saponification Number, d) Iodine Value.

• a) Zwitter Ion: A molecule with both positive and negative charges, like amino acids.
• b) Isoelectric pH: The pH at which an amino acid or protein has no net electric charge.
• c) Saponification Number: A measure of the average molecular weight of fats and oils.
• d) Iodine Value: A measure of the unsaturation of fats and oils.

Q19: Define Epimers & Anomers of carbohydrates with examples. Epimers are a type of stereoisomer that differs in the configuration of a single asymmetric carbon atom. Anomers are a subset of epimers and differ in the configuration around the hemiacetal or hemiketal carbon atom. For example, glucose and galactose are epimers, while alpha and beta glucose are anomers.

Q20: Write a note on the rancidity of oils. Rancidity refers to the spoilage of fats and oils, leading to an unpleasant taste and odor. It can be caused by oxidation (oxidative rancidity) or microbial action (hydrolytic rancidity). Proper storage and antioxidants can help prevent rancidity.

Q21: Name the ketone bodies & explain the tests to detect them. The main ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Tests to detect them include the nitroprusside test and the acetest tablet test.

Q22: What are erythrocytes? Write a note on anemia and abnormalities of RBCs. Erythrocytes are red blood cells responsible for transporting oxygen. Anemia is a condition characterized by a low RBC count or decreased hemoglobin levels, leading to fatigue and weakness. Abnormalities of RBCs include sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, and polycythemia.

Q23: Write a note on atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a condition where the arteries become narrowed and hardened due to the buildup of cholesterol plaques. It is a major cause of heart disease and stroke.

Q24: What are coenzymes? Describe the chemistry, source, biochemical role, and deficiency symptoms of folic acid. Coenzymes are organic molecules that help enzymes function properly. Folic acid is a B-vitamin essential for DNA synthesis and cell growth. Deficiency can result in anemia and birth defects.

Q25: Name the different pathways of carbohydrate metabolism. Describe the pathway involved in the oxidation of glucose. Carbohydrate metabolism includes glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis is the initial step in glucose metabolism, where glucose is broken down into pyruvate.

Q26: Describe the color reactions of protein and the biological role of protein. Proteins can be tested using the Biuret test, which changes color in the presence of proteins. Proteins play various vital roles, including enzyme function, structural support, and immune response.

Q27: Discuss glycogenolysis and Glycogenesis with its significance. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen to release glucose when needed for energy. Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen to store glucose. Both processes help maintain blood sugar levels.

Q28: Explain the factors affecting enzyme activity. Enzyme activity can be influenced by factors such as temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and the presence of inhibitors or activators.

Q29: Define & classify lipids with suitable examples. Write a note on Rancidity. Lipids are diverse organic compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Rancidity is the spoilage of lipids, leading to unpleasant odors and flavors, and can be caused by oxidation or hydrolysis.

Q30: Describe the normal & abnormal constituents of urine, including their significance, and laboratory tests to detect them. Normal urine constituents include water, urea, creatinine, and electrolytes. Abnormal constituents may indicate underlying health conditions, such as proteinuria or hematuria. Various laboratory tests, like urinalysis, can detect these abnormalities.

Q31: Describe the HMP Shunt Pathway, Citric Acid Cycle, and β-oxidation of fatty acids with chemical reactions.

• HMP Shunt Pathway: Also known as the pentose phosphate pathway, it generates NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.
• Citric Acid Cycle: Also called the Krebs cycle, it is involved in the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to generate ATP.
• β-oxidation of fatty acids: This process breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA for energy production.

Q32: Explain Gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, primarily in the liver and kidneys. It occurs when glucose levels are low, such as during fasting.